Structuralism

Structuralism
Structuralism is the name given to the theory of language and linguistic studies propounded in a wide range of discourses by Ferdinand De Saussure. It contains an account of the underlying structures of signification (utterances expressing meaning). It is a new approach to linguistic studies founded by Ferdinand De Saussure. In his Course in General Linguistics (1916), Saussure saw language as a structured system of signs constructed by convention. It consists of the lexicon and the syntactic and morphological rules which govern the ordering of the words and phrases into sentences. 
The systematic structure exists in the minds of the members of the language community. According to Saussure, it is possible to study the systematic structure of a language without reference to the actual phonetic or graphic realization. 

Synchronoic rather than Diachronic Approach

The approach rejects the traditional approach which looked upon language as speech and language studies studies as the study of the historical development of a language or as a naming process for things, abstract concepts and imaginary entities. Saussure held the view that a language should be studied synchronically i.e. as it exists at a given point of time. It is the duty of the linguist to discover the system as it exists and bring it to the notice of those who want to use it rather than trace the historical evolution of a language through the ages.

Langue and Parole

Even more important than this is that he drew a distinction between parole ( the laguage behaviour of the members of the language the language community) and langue (the system of a language which makes that behaviour posiible). He asserted that instead of studying parole, the linguist should devote himself to the study of the langue the knowledge of which enables the members to use the language for their daily purposes.

Distinction between Speech and Language

Saussure stresses the fact that language is not speech. Speech is individual whereas language is social. Secondly, speech has three aspects – psychological, physical and physiological. The articulation and hearing of words or sentences constitute the physiological part of speech. The sounds that are produced by the speaker and their movement from the speaker to the listener are the physical constituents of speech. The ideation and its encoding into the signs of the language on the part of the speaker and the processing and interpretation of the signals to make sense of them on the part of the listener are the psychological part of speech. It is only the psychological part (the signs, their selection and patterning into meaningful combinations) that should interest the linguist.   

Two Levels - Lexical and Systematic 

According to Saussure, all languages are systems having two levels of structure – the lexical level and the systematic structure level. At the lexical level, a language, according to him, is a large and by no means finite set of signs which the traditional linguists called words or lexemes. But according to him, signs are cocrete mental images existing in the minds of the members of a linguistic community. But an individual member’s repertory (store) of these signs is not exhaustive (complete). It is only the society at large that posseses an exhaustive knowledge of the signs of a language. These signs are, to him, concrete entities which can be realised through speech or writing. It this exhaustive repertory which is a social property that is of interest to a linguist.

Signifier and Signified

The sign itself is divided into two parts: the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the spoken or written form of the sign traditionally referred to as a word. The signified is the object, the concept or any imaginary entity that it stands for. The use of the signifier immediately evokes in the mind of the listener an image of the signified.

Meaning of Signs

Saussure looked upon meaning as being relational, as a product of the interaction between signifiers and singifieds.  He rejected the traditional “ correspondence theory of meaning” and asserted that there is no one to one  relation between the signifier and the signified. He further argued that the relationship between the signifier and the signified is not based on any logic or reasoning. It is conventional and arbitrary. That is why different languages use different signs to signify the same entity. Moreover, the value (the meaning) of the signs is determined by the differences and oppositions existing among them. Every sign has some distinguishing features that are not found in others. These distinctive feature determine the meaning of a sign just like the distinctive features of the phonemes of a language.

The System

The signs pattern themselves into larger units known as syntagms (phrases, clauses or sentences) according to some rules which, like the signs, are to be found in the minds of the language community. It is these rules that determine the structure of the language in question. These structural rules are the syntactic and grammatical rules of the language.

Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relations

The signs pattern themselves into syntagms in two ways – syntagmatically and paradigmatically. The syntagmatic relationship is the linear relationship among the signs. It determines how they combine with one another linearly from left to right in most languages but from right to left in some like Urdu. Syntagmatic rules decide which category of signs can succeed or precede which other one along the linear axis. The paradigmatic relationship is the relationship among the signs that can be substituted for one another in the same slot without affecting the acceptability of the syntagm. In the sentence – the dog is sitting on the mat -, the relationship among the seven words is syntagmatic. But we can replace the word dog by the word cat or man or boy or girl. Similarly, we can replace the word mat by cot, chair, table, floor etc. We can also substitute lying, playing, relaxing or standing for sitting. The relationship among the words in these three sets is paradigmatic.

According to Saussure, it is the job of the linguist to discover the rules which govern the distribution of signs in the well-formed syntagms of the language.

Priority of Speech over Writing

The most important part of Saussure’s views is that speech is more important to the linguist than writing. The system underlying a language is to be found in the speech of the people and not in the writings of the best authors. The linguist has to investigate the system as it exists in the minds of the language community and not as reflected in the writings of the great authors.

Conclusion

The structuralism as propounded by Saussure in his Course in General Linguistics has had an immense effect not only in linguistics but in other disciplines also. It completely revolutionised linguistic studies and made them scientific rather than speculative. Although some of his assertions have been criticized and challenged by some later linguists, his immense and lasting contribution to linguistic studies cannot be denied.